Wednesday, February 19, 2025
HomeFamily LawLocal Government Authority and the Constitutionality of Laws Against Camping or Sleeping...

Local Government Authority and the Constitutionality of Laws Against Camping or Sleeping in Public – North Carolina Criminal Law

According to the Department of Housing and Urban Development, well over half a million people are unhoused on any given night in America. Given the magnitude of the crisis, local governments face immense challenges in addressing the underlying causes of homelessness while managing public health and safety concerns. Some local governments, including many in North Carolina, have adopted anti-camping and/or anti-sleeping ordinances as part of their response.

The Supreme Court of the United States recently considered whether the Eighth Amendment’s Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause barred an Oregon city’s adoption of ordinances restricting camping on public property in City of Grants Pass v. Johnson, 603 U. S. ____ (2024). One of us previewed the case and commented on the oral arguments a few months ago. On June 28, 2024, the Supreme Court upheld the city’s public camping laws, concluding that their enforcement does not constitute “cruel and unusual punishment” under the Eighth Amendment. This blog post analyzes the Court’s decision and offers guidance to local governments regarding anti-sleeping and anti-camping ordinances.

[Editor’s note: This post is cross posted on Coates’ Canons, the School of Government’s local government law blog.]

The Grants Pass Decision

Three city ordinances restricting camping in public spaces were at issue in Grants Pass:

The first prohibits sleeping “on public sidewalks, streets, or alleyways.” The second prohibits “[c]amping” on public property. Camping is defined as “set[ting] up . . . or remain[ing] in or at a campsite,” and a “[c]ampsite” is defined as “any place where bedding, sleeping bag[s], or other material used for bedding purposes, or any stove or fire is placed . . . for the purpose of maintaining a temporary place to live.” The third prohibits “[c]amping” and “[o]vernight parking” in the city’s parks.

Grants Pass, slip op. at 11 (alterations in original) (citations omitted). The ordinances provide escalating penalties for violations. An initial violation triggers a fine, beginning at $295 and increasing to over $500. An individual who receives more than two citations within a year may be subject to an order barring the person from city parks for 30 days. Finally, a violation of the exclusion order could constitute criminal trespass, punishable by a maximum of 30 days in jail and a $1,250 fine.

Several unhoused individuals sued the city, contending that its ordinances violated the Eighth Amendment’s Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause. They relied on Martin v. City of Boise, 902 F.3d 1031 (9th Cir. 2018), in which the Ninth Circuit had previously held that “the Eighth Amendment prohibits the imposition of criminal penalties for sitting, sleeping, or lying outside on public property for homeless individuals who cannot obtain shelter.” Martin, in turn, was based on Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), in which the Supreme Court ruled that a California statute criminalizing the status of being addicted to narcotics violated the Eighth Amendment, just as it would be unconstitutional to “to make it a criminal offense for a person to be mentally ill, or a leper, or to be afflicted with a venereal disease.”

The plaintiffs in the Grants Pass case won partial summary judgment in the district court, and the Ninth Circuit affirmed in part. See Johnson v. City of Grants Pass, 72 F.4th 868 (9th Cir. 2023). The city petitioned for certiorari, supported by a large number of cities, counties, and local government associations, and the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case. The Court ruled 6-3 for the city, with all the conservative justices joining Justice Gorsuch’s majority opinion, and the three liberal justices signing on to Justice Sotomayor’s dissent.

The majority endorsed a narrow view of the Eighth Amendment, reasoning that “[t]he Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause focuses on the question what method or kind of punishment a government may impose after a criminal conviction, not on the question whether a government may criminalize particular behavior in the first place.” Grants Pass, slip op. at 16 (cleaned up). The types of penalties possible under the challenged ordinances are not vicious or exotic punishments like disemboweling or burning at the stake—they are fines and imprisonment, common and accepted modalities of punishment. Thus, the majority concluded, there was no Eighth Amendment problem.

This reading of the Eighth Amendment cannot be squared with the Supreme Court’s prior holding in Robinson—which was concerned precisely with what a government may criminalize, not with the types of punishment it may impose—and the majority expressed profound skepticism about Robinson. Indeed, Justice Thomas’s concurrence in Grants Pass expressly argued that Robinson was wrongly decided and should be overruled. But the other justices in the majority did not see a need to go so far to resolve the case. They concluded that the ordinances at issue do not punish the status of homelessness and therefore do not run afoul of Robinson. Rather, the ordinances punish certain conduct—camping and sleeping in public. While that conduct may be related to or driven by homelessness, the majority concluded it remains distinct from the status of being unhoused itself. The Court observed that “it makes no difference whether the charged defendant is homeless, a backpacker on vacation passing through town, or a student who abandons his dorm room to camp out in protest on the lawn of a municipal building.” Grants Pass, slip op. at 20. The city’s ordinances apply to all.

The majority drew a parallel to laws against drug possession and use. Such conduct may be related to or driven by addiction, but Robinson acknowledges that laws against drug-related conduct may be enforced even against people who suffer from addiction. Further, the majority noted Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514 (1968), where the Court determined that a Texas law against public intoxication did not violate the Eighth Amendment even though the status of alcoholism may drive some individuals to drink in public places.

The dissenting justices endorsed a broader view of the Eighth Amendment, arguing that it “is not limited to medieval tortures,” Grant Pass, slip op. at 10 (dissent), and that Robinson was as a bedrock precedent that should be followed. Characterizing sleep as a “biological necessity, not a crime,” the dissenters contended that the intent and effect of the ordinances is to criminalize the status of homelessness: “Under the majority’s logic, cities cannot criminalize the status of being homeless, but they can criminalize the conduct that defines that status.” Grant Pass, slip op. at 1, 15 (dissent).

An important point on which the majority and the dissent seem to agree is that other legal doctrines may be implicated by the ordinances at issue. In an individual case, a person charged with violating the ordinances might raise a necessity defense. More broadly, the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment might provide a basis for challenging the criminalization of sleeping in public.

Finally, the Court declined to address what impact, if any, a recently enacted Oregon law would have upon the city’s anti-camping ordinances. The Oregon statute provides: “Any city or county law that regulates the acts of sitting, lying, sleeping or keeping warm and dry outdoors on public property that is open to the public must be objectively reasonable as to time, place and manner with regards to persons experiencing homelessness.” Ore. Rev. Stat. §195.530(2) (emphasis added). The law also grants unhoused persons the opportunity to “bring suit for injunctive or declaratory relief to challenge the objective reasonableness” of an ordinance.” §195.530(4).

Considerations for Local Governments in North Carolina

Public camping laws are common across the country. “By one count, ‘a majority of cities have laws restricting camping in public spaces,’ and nearly forty percent ‘have one or more laws prohibiting camping citywide.’” Grants Pass, slip op. at 6 (citation omitted). The same is true in North Carolina.

For those North Carolina cities and counties considering adopting or re-shaping public camping ordinances in light of Grants Pass, the decision offers the following guideposts:

  1. Localities may (but are not required to) cite, fine, and even incarcerate individuals for camping on public property without violating the Eighth Amendment.
  2. As the majority notes, however, and as explained in greater detail below, criminal enforcement of local ordinances remains optional. The Court described Grants Pass’ approach to enforcement of its anti-camping ordinances as “light-touch.” Grants Pass, slip op. at 11. For example, neither named plaintiff in the case had been subject to an order barring them from city property or to criminal trespass charges.
  3. Local governments are not required to predicate a bar on public camping upon the availability of shelter beds or temporary housing in the city, town, village, or county (though they may choose to do so).
  4. Exercising caution, a city or county may still wish to regulate the time, place, and manner of public camping, rather than completely prohibiting it.
  5. The Court explicitly deferred to elected representatives and appointed officials, among others (voluntary associations, mental health professionals, etc.), for public policy solutions to the homelessness crisis. Grants Pass, slip op. at 34-35.

Criminal Enforcement of Anti-Sleeping/Anti-Camping Ordinances

With regard to criminal penalties, it is important to remember that in 2021, the General Assembly decriminalized most violations of local ordinances. Pursuant to G.S. 153A-123(b) (counties) and 160A-175(b) (cities), in order for criminal penalties to be available, the governing body must specify that violation of an ordinance will result in a misdemeanor or an infraction. In this context, for example, a city or county could not impose a criminal penalty for camping or sleeping in public unless the ordinance specifies that criminal penalty. Recall also that in North Carolina “no ordinance specifying a criminal penalty may be enacted at the meeting in which it is first introduced.” G.S. 153A-123(b) (counties); G.S. 160A-175(b) (cities).

As with Grants Pass, Oregon, however, criminal enforcement of these ordinances in most places appears to be rare. “According to the National League of Cities (a group that represents more than 19,000 American cities and towns), the National Association of Counties (which represents the Nation’s 3,069 counties) and others across the American West, these public-camping regulations are not usually deployed as a front-line response ‘to criminalize homelessness.’” Grants Pass, slip op. at 6. By contrast, according to the majority, “they are used to provide city employees with the legal authority to address ‘encampments that pose significant health and safety risks’ and to encourage their inhabitants to accept other alternatives like shelters, drug treatment programs, and mental-health facilities.” Id.

Lastly, given the potential for due process or other legal challenges to ordinances against sleeping or camping in public places, local governments may wish to continue to use criminal law as a last resort, rather than a first option, to address homelessness. And because of the potential for claims of selective prosecution, local governments should also ensure that any pertinent ordinances are enforced equally against unhoused and housed individuals.

It remains to be seen what effect, if any, the Supreme Court’s decision in this case will have on local efforts in North Carolina to address affordable housing, adopt or revise anti-camping/anti-sleeping ordinances, or criminally enforce public camping laws. As for Grants Pass, Oregon Public Broadcasting reported that the city council would “discuss the ruling” on July 10, 2024. The issue did not appear on the agenda for the council’s July 17, 2024 meeting.

The Court explicitly deferred to elected representatives and appointed officials, among others (voluntary associations, mental health professionals, etc.), for public policy solutions to the homelessness crisis. Grants Pass, slip op. at 34-35.

Hai, para pencinta slot! pernahkah mendengar istilah “raja slot? Kalau tidak, bersiaplah jatuh hati sama program ini. slot gacor merupakan mesin slots yang selalu kasih kemenangan. Yup, mesin-mesin ini bisa dikatakan adalah jagoannya tuk membawa pulang hasil. but, gimana sih caranya jumpain raja lot yang tepat? Santai Bro and Sis, kita bahas santai saja di sini

Games tergaco saat sekarang hanya satu di Indonesia hanya di yang memberikan imbal hasil terbesar

Daftarkanlah di:

Informasi mengenai KING SLOT, Segera Daftar Bersama king selot terbaik dan terpercaya no satu di Indonesia. Boleh mendaftar melalui sini king slot serta memberikan hasil kembali yang paling tinggi saat sekarang ini hanyalah KING SLOT atau Raja slot paling gacor, gilak dan gaco saat sekarang di Indonesia melalui program return tinggi di kingselot serta pg king slot

slot demo gacor

slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun demo slot gacor

akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun slot demo gacor

akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun demo slot pragmatic

akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun slot demo pragmatic

akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun slot demo

akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

akun demo slot

akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com

slot demo gacor

slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun demo slot gacor

akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun slot demo gacor

akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun demo slot pragmatic

akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun slot demo pragmatic

akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun slot demo

akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

akun demo slot

akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com

slot demo gacor

slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun demo slot gacor

akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun slot demo gacor

akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun demo slot pragmatic

akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun slot demo pragmatic

akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun slot demo

akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

akun demo slot

akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro

slot demo gacor

slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun demo slot gacor

akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun slot demo gacor

akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun demo slot pragmatic

akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun slot demo pragmatic

akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun slot demo

akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

akun demo slot

akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

situs slot terbaru

situs slot terbaru permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

slot terbaru

slot terbaru permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net

asn88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama asn88.net

anjir88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama anjir88.asia

albaslot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama albaslot88.asia

air88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama air88.bio

air88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama air88.asia

vavaslot888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama vavaslot888.org

vavaslot888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama vavaslot888.net

oborslot888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama oborslot888.org

oborslot888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama oborslot888.net

duniaslot777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama duniaslot777a.org

ayukbet88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ayukbet88.org

ayukbet88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ayukbet88.net

j888slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama j888slot.org

klikdewa88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama klikdewa88.net

klikdewa88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama klikdewa88.com

klikbet777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama klikbet777.info

klikbet777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama klikbet777.asia

gemoyslot999 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gemoyslot999.net

seroja888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama seroja888.net

seroja888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama seroja888.com

hoka88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama hoka88.asia

dutaslot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dutaslot88.com

buaya88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama buaya88.asia

buaya777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama buaya777.asia

zonavegas88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama zonavegas88.net

tongtoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tongtoto88.org

tongtoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tongtoto88.net

sista999 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama sista999.org

mbokslot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mbokslot88.org

mbokslot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mbokslot88.net

pg king slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama pgkingslot.org

holywing88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama holywing88.asia

bolagila88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bolagila88.asia

dewalive88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dewalive88.biz

kputoto888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kputoto888.net

vio777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama vio777.asia

nix777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama nix777.net

nego88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama nego88.net

nego777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama nego777.com

marjan899 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama marjan899.com

marjan888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama marjan888.com

gcr88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gcr88.org

bosku77 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bosku77.asia

gaco88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gaco88.asia

dijual88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dijual88.com

dijual88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dijual88.net

saritoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama saritoto88.com

gege888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gege888.net

exa88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama exa88.org

dower888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dower888.org

bos888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bos888.info

badabest888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama badabest888.com

ayamjago888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ayamjago888.net

vviavi88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama vviavi88.com

sydneycuan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama sydneycuan88.com

gotocuan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gotocuan88.com

bank88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bank88.asia

agenplay888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama agenplay888.com

satelittogel88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama satelittogel88.net

hiutoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama hiutoto88.net

hiutoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama hiutoto88.com

kedai88slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kedai88slot.biz

nova12 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama nova12.net

piktoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama piktoto88.net

zeuswin888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama zeuswin888.com

zoom88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama zoom88.info

asg88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama asg88.org

azkabet88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama azkabet88.net

becak88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama becak88.biz

besitoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama besitoto88.com

bethoki88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bethoki88.biz

bibit88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bibit88.biz

bibit88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bibit88.info

bolago888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bolago888.net

boswin777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama boswin777.biz

cafe88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama cafe88.info

cinta88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama cinta88.biz

coki888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama coki888.com

cumi88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama cumi88.com

cumitoto permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama cumitoto.com

darma888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama darma888.org

dewagacor888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dewagacor888.net

engkol888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama engkol888.info

garasislot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama garasislot88.biz

harumtoto permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama harumtoto.org

indo788 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama indo788.net

jenitoto permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jenitoto.com

joker18 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama joker18.net

juliet88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama juliet88.net

jumbototo88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jumbototo88.com

kaostogel88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kaostogel88.net

kaskus88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kaskus88.biz

kawin777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kawin777.biz

kinggacor88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kinggacor88.com

koboislot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama koboislot88.net

kputoto88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kputoto88.net

ribo888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ribo888.biz

kripto888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kripto888.biz

lebah77 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama lebah77.asia

lebah7777 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama lebah7777.com

legend888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama legend888.info

RELATED ARTICLES
- Advertisment -
Google search engine

Most Popular

Recent Comments